1
00:00:01,199 --> 00:00:06,630
thank you york

2
00:00:09,750 --> 00:00:07,829
all right this afternoon i'd like to

3
00:00:11,030 --> 00:00:09,760
discuss on the current state of second

4
00:00:12,390 --> 00:00:11,040
law research

5
00:00:13,830 --> 00:00:12,400
and i'd like to give a brief

6
00:00:15,509 --> 00:00:13,840
introduction starting with the

7
00:00:16,470 --> 00:00:15,519
discussion of energy and then moving on

8
00:00:19,590 --> 00:00:16,480
to

9
00:00:21,189 --> 00:00:19,600
and why

10
00:00:22,710 --> 00:00:21,199
one should consider the possibility that

11
00:00:23,590 --> 00:00:22,720
it may be viable sometime in the near

12
00:00:25,830 --> 00:00:23,600
future

13
00:00:27,189 --> 00:00:25,840
and then finally discuss some of the

14
00:00:31,669 --> 00:00:27,199
breadth and

15
00:00:33,670 --> 00:00:31,679
depth of the of the subject

16
00:00:35,190 --> 00:00:33,680
quite literally energy does make the

17
00:00:38,950 --> 00:00:35,200
world go round

18
00:00:41,990 --> 00:00:38,960
rotationally kinetically chemically

19
00:00:43,750 --> 00:00:42,000
economically geopolitically militarily

20
00:00:45,430 --> 00:00:43,760
almost everything you see in the world

21
00:00:46,950 --> 00:00:45,440
is connected with energy because energy

22
00:00:49,430 --> 00:00:46,960
is the currency of change

23
00:00:51,510 --> 00:00:49,440
without it nothing happens the current

24
00:00:53,510 --> 00:00:51,520
worldwide use of energy is roughly about

25
00:00:55,350 --> 00:00:53,520
15 terawatts now to put that into

26
00:00:58,950 --> 00:00:55,360
perspective it's equivalent roughly

27
00:01:01,029 --> 00:00:58,960
to the energy every five seconds

28
00:01:02,069 --> 00:01:01,039
the power use is equal to that energy of

29
00:01:05,670 --> 00:01:02,079
roughly a world war

30
00:01:07,350 --> 00:01:05,680
ii nuclear bomb going off and by 2025

31
00:01:10,310 --> 00:01:07,360
roughly about 50 percent more energy

32
00:01:12,710 --> 00:01:10,320
will be required to run civilization

33
00:01:13,910 --> 00:01:12,720
and by a modest and conservative

34
00:01:16,149 --> 00:01:13,920
estimate roughly 20

35
00:01:17,190 --> 00:01:16,159
of the world's economy is devoted to

36
00:01:20,390 --> 00:01:17,200
energy to

37
00:01:21,910 --> 00:01:20,400
discovery extraction transportation use

38
00:01:27,030 --> 00:01:21,920
and in the case of the gulf of

39
00:01:30,390 --> 00:01:27,040
remediation from the extraction process

40
00:01:32,789 --> 00:01:30,400
in terms of energy use in general about

41
00:01:34,469 --> 00:01:32,799
85 percent of it is fossil fuel coal

42
00:01:37,030 --> 00:01:34,479
natural gas and oil

43
00:01:38,390 --> 00:01:37,040
the rest nuclear renewables make up a

44
00:01:40,390 --> 00:01:38,400
smaller fraction

45
00:01:41,910 --> 00:01:40,400
by sector roughly a quarter is used in

46
00:01:43,270 --> 00:01:41,920
residential a quarter in industry

47
00:01:45,590 --> 00:01:43,280
quartering commercial quarter and

48
00:01:47,749 --> 00:01:45,600
transport and in terms of world

49
00:01:49,670 --> 00:01:47,759
consumption as of 2002.

50
00:01:51,749 --> 00:01:49,680
uh north america primarily the united

51
00:01:52,630 --> 00:01:51,759
states makes up roughly about 27 percent

52
00:01:56,469 --> 00:01:52,640
of the world's

53
00:01:57,510 --> 00:01:56,479
energy use the rest is in eastern and

54
00:02:00,149 --> 00:01:57,520
western europe

55
00:02:01,830 --> 00:02:00,159
for the first half most of the world

56
00:02:02,389 --> 00:02:01,840
survives on roughly the other half of

57
00:02:05,670 --> 00:02:02,399
this

58
00:02:08,309 --> 00:02:05,680
but if you'll notice china which makes

59
00:02:09,990 --> 00:02:08,319
china and india which make up roughly a

60
00:02:12,070 --> 00:02:10,000
third of the world's population

61
00:02:14,150 --> 00:02:12,080
by themselves only make up a small

62
00:02:16,869 --> 00:02:14,160
fraction now but as they emerge

63
00:02:18,150 --> 00:02:16,879
into first world economies they will

64
00:02:20,949 --> 00:02:18,160
begin to eat up a greater

65
00:02:22,869 --> 00:02:20,959
share of this and of course there are

66
00:02:24,470 --> 00:02:22,879
finite supplies

67
00:02:27,110 --> 00:02:24,480
current estimates are that oil has

68
00:02:30,869 --> 00:02:27,120
roughly about 40 years left

69
00:02:32,949 --> 00:02:30,879
gas about 70 and coal about 250.

70
00:02:35,430 --> 00:02:32,959
this is the famous hubert curve which

71
00:02:36,949 --> 00:02:35,440
was predicted back in the 1950s

72
00:02:38,790 --> 00:02:36,959
predicting the oil production in the

73
00:02:40,229 --> 00:02:38,800
united states versus year

74
00:02:42,630 --> 00:02:40,239
the prediction was that it would peak

75
00:02:44,309 --> 00:02:42,640
roughly in about 1970 and indeed it did

76
00:02:47,270 --> 00:02:44,319
the united states now imports roughly

77
00:02:50,470 --> 00:02:47,280
about 60 percent of its oil

78
00:02:52,150 --> 00:02:50,480
the uber curve for for coal would follow

79
00:02:54,470 --> 00:02:52,160
something along these lines

80
00:02:56,390 --> 00:02:54,480
um we're here right now coming up coming

81
00:02:57,030 --> 00:02:56,400
up the curve it should peak around 2100

82
00:02:59,670 --> 00:02:57,040
or so

83
00:03:01,670 --> 00:02:59,680
and then um tail off from there but if

84
00:03:03,030 --> 00:03:01,680
we put all this co2 into the atmosphere

85
00:03:04,149 --> 00:03:03,040
i think we all know we'll burn down the

86
00:03:05,270 --> 00:03:04,159
planet

87
00:03:07,270 --> 00:03:05,280
so the inconvenient truth and

88
00:03:08,470 --> 00:03:07,280
consequences of this obviously climate

89
00:03:10,229 --> 00:03:08,480
and environmental change

90
00:03:12,309 --> 00:03:10,239
pollution global warming ecosystem

91
00:03:13,990 --> 00:03:12,319
destruction and many

92
00:03:15,589 --> 00:03:14,000
biologists believe we are in the middle

93
00:03:17,350 --> 00:03:15,599
or the beginning of a mass extinction

94
00:03:19,110 --> 00:03:17,360
which will be comparable to the previous

95
00:03:22,630 --> 00:03:19,120
five in the last half a billion years

96
00:03:25,110 --> 00:03:22,640
the ordovician the devonian the permian

97
00:03:27,589 --> 00:03:25,120
250 million years ago the great dying

98
00:03:30,470 --> 00:03:27,599
the jurassic triassic and the cretaceous

99
00:03:32,470 --> 00:03:30,480
tertiary which was 65 million years ago

100
00:03:33,990 --> 00:03:32,480
this mass extinction that was being

101
00:03:37,110 --> 00:03:34,000
overseen by us

102
00:03:38,070 --> 00:03:37,120
through all of these all of these terms

103
00:03:39,350 --> 00:03:38,080
above

104
00:03:41,270 --> 00:03:39,360
and obviously there are insufficient

105
00:03:43,110 --> 00:03:41,280
supplies of energy there

106
00:03:44,550 --> 00:03:43,120
um we have economic instability as a

107
00:03:46,949 --> 00:03:44,560
result of this fuel and

108
00:03:48,149 --> 00:03:46,959
food shortages social and rest and

109
00:03:49,509 --> 00:03:48,159
judging from some of the recent

110
00:03:51,509 --> 00:03:49,519
activities of

111
00:03:53,990 --> 00:03:51,519
the united states can also lead to

112
00:03:56,710 --> 00:03:54,000
military interventions

113
00:03:57,750 --> 00:03:56,720
the alternatives to fossil fuels and and

114
00:03:59,990 --> 00:03:57,760
nuclear

115
00:04:02,789 --> 00:04:00,000
are numerous have solar thermal

116
00:04:04,149 --> 00:04:02,799
photovoltaic hydro wind tidal geothermal

117
00:04:07,190 --> 00:04:04,159
but all of these have their

118
00:04:10,390 --> 00:04:07,200
disadvantages in terms of capital costs

119
00:04:11,509 --> 00:04:10,400
scale size efficiency renewability unit

120
00:04:13,990 --> 00:04:11,519
cost and so on

121
00:04:14,949 --> 00:04:14,000
such that it's unlikely that any of them

122
00:04:17,590 --> 00:04:14,959
or even all of them

123
00:04:18,789 --> 00:04:17,600
will be able to fill the energy vacuum

124
00:04:22,069 --> 00:04:18,799
that will exist

125
00:04:24,870 --> 00:04:22,079
in the near future so

126
00:04:25,909 --> 00:04:24,880
what would be an ideal energy source if

127
00:04:27,590 --> 00:04:25,919
you were to just

128
00:04:28,790 --> 00:04:27,600
write down a few characteristics

129
00:04:30,070 --> 00:04:28,800
something you might consider to be an

130
00:04:31,670 --> 00:04:30,080
ideal energy source

131
00:04:33,749 --> 00:04:31,680
it should be one that is ubiquitous

132
00:04:34,950 --> 00:04:33,759
found everywhere it should have a high

133
00:04:37,110 --> 00:04:34,960
power density

134
00:04:38,469 --> 00:04:37,120
now you may think solar power is good

135
00:04:39,270 --> 00:04:38,479
but it does not have a high power

136
00:04:41,590 --> 00:04:39,280
density

137
00:04:43,030 --> 00:04:41,600
roughly if you put solar panels out and

138
00:04:43,830 --> 00:04:43,040
collect all the sunlight coming from the

139
00:04:45,830 --> 00:04:43,840
sky

140
00:04:47,189 --> 00:04:45,840
on a square meter of surface area at

141
00:04:49,350 --> 00:04:47,199
normal incidence you'll get roughly a

142
00:04:51,430 --> 00:04:49,360
kilowatt of solar power coming in

143
00:04:53,110 --> 00:04:51,440
of which you might be able to glean 20

144
00:04:54,790 --> 00:04:53,120
of that and you won't get any more than

145
00:04:56,070 --> 00:04:54,800
that so you'll never be able to get more

146
00:04:57,990 --> 00:04:56,080
than about let's say 200

147
00:04:59,189 --> 00:04:58,000
watts per square meter and that's all

148
00:05:02,150 --> 00:04:59,199
you'll be able to get

149
00:05:03,189 --> 00:05:02,160
so to power a city you need acres or

150
00:05:06,230 --> 00:05:03,199
square miles

151
00:05:06,629 --> 00:05:06,240
of such solar panels in order to handle

152
00:05:11,110 --> 00:05:06,639
it

153
00:05:13,510 --> 00:05:11,120
sense the

154
00:05:15,110 --> 00:05:13,520
um the concentration of energy and so

155
00:05:16,469 --> 00:05:15,120
you want a high concentration

156
00:05:18,390 --> 00:05:16,479
of power and energy coming out of your

157
00:05:19,430 --> 00:05:18,400
ideal source it should be green and

158
00:05:21,830 --> 00:05:19,440
non-polluting

159
00:05:23,670 --> 00:05:21,840
plentiful and inexhaustible so what

160
00:05:25,670 --> 00:05:23,680
might this mean

161
00:05:27,670 --> 00:05:25,680
well the most ubiquitous energy source

162
00:05:28,150 --> 00:05:27,680
available i should not say available

163
00:05:30,870 --> 00:05:28,160
around

164
00:05:32,310 --> 00:05:30,880
us is thermal energy the air molecules

165
00:05:33,430 --> 00:05:32,320
in this room the nitrogen and oxygen

166
00:05:36,070 --> 00:05:33,440
molecules are moving

167
00:05:37,510 --> 00:05:36,080
roughly about 400 meters per second

168
00:05:39,029 --> 00:05:37,520
roughly the speed of sound

169
00:05:40,870 --> 00:05:39,039
constantly we don't feel it because

170
00:05:42,469 --> 00:05:40,880
they're small and the average

171
00:05:44,310 --> 00:05:42,479
their average momenta when they bounce

172
00:05:46,629 --> 00:05:44,320
off of us add to zero so we really don't

173
00:05:48,469 --> 00:05:46,639
notice it

174
00:05:49,990 --> 00:05:48,479
um a glass of water for instance the one

175
00:05:51,830 --> 00:05:50,000
that are sitting on your desk right now

176
00:05:53,909 --> 00:05:51,840
a full glass of water in terms of

177
00:05:55,830 --> 00:05:53,919
thermal energy has roughly the

178
00:05:58,230 --> 00:05:55,840
thermal energy equivalent of roughly

179
00:05:59,749 --> 00:05:58,240
about one tenth of a kilogram of tnt

180
00:06:01,670 --> 00:05:59,759
and that includes everything else in

181
00:06:02,469 --> 00:06:01,680
this room the ceiling tiles the rugs on

182
00:06:05,670 --> 00:06:02,479
the floor

183
00:06:07,270 --> 00:06:05,680
the um the tables are flesh everything

184
00:06:08,790 --> 00:06:07,280
is loaded with energy

185
00:06:11,909 --> 00:06:08,800
but it's in a form that can't be used

186
00:06:13,270 --> 00:06:11,919
easily the atmosphere ocean and crust

187
00:06:15,189 --> 00:06:13,280
if you were to add up all the all the

188
00:06:15,990 --> 00:06:15,199
thermal energy in these three in the

189
00:06:17,909 --> 00:06:16,000
upper crust

190
00:06:19,590 --> 00:06:17,919
and the atmosphere and ocean you'd have

191
00:06:21,110 --> 00:06:19,600
roughly 10 000 times

192
00:06:22,950 --> 00:06:21,120
the amount of energy in all the fossil

193
00:06:23,909 --> 00:06:22,960
refuel reserves that are known

194
00:06:26,790 --> 00:06:23,919
and these are constantly being

195
00:06:28,550 --> 00:06:26,800
replenished by solar and radioactivity

196
00:06:32,150 --> 00:06:28,560
in the crust

197
00:06:33,990 --> 00:06:32,160
it is essentially it is plentiful and in

198
00:06:35,270 --> 00:06:34,000
principle and exhaustible if you can get

199
00:06:37,590 --> 00:06:35,280
at it

200
00:06:39,189 --> 00:06:37,600
so thermal energy has all the

201
00:06:40,150 --> 00:06:39,199
characteristics and principle that you

202
00:06:41,270 --> 00:06:40,160
would want out of a

203
00:06:43,189 --> 00:06:41,280
out of an energy source that's

204
00:06:45,670 --> 00:06:43,199
ubiquitous high power density

205
00:06:46,870 --> 00:06:45,680
plentiful inexhaustible recyclable but

206
00:06:47,749 --> 00:06:46,880
not really

207
00:06:49,189 --> 00:06:47,759
because of the second law of

208
00:06:50,390 --> 00:06:49,199
thermodynamics which is probably the

209
00:06:54,070 --> 00:06:50,400
most depressing law

210
00:06:59,749 --> 00:06:57,110
there are four laws of thermodynamics

211
00:07:01,270 --> 00:06:59,759
the first is actually called the zeroth

212
00:07:02,629 --> 00:07:01,280
because it was thought of afterwards and

213
00:07:03,909 --> 00:07:02,639
so since they already named the first

214
00:07:04,790 --> 00:07:03,919
second and third they had to go back and

215
00:07:06,150 --> 00:07:04,800
throw in another one

216
00:07:07,990 --> 00:07:06,160
if another law is found it'd be called a

217
00:07:10,950 --> 00:07:08,000
negative first probably

218
00:07:11,270 --> 00:07:10,960
um but the zeroth and third law which on

219
00:07:14,309 --> 00:07:11,280
the

220
00:07:16,309 --> 00:07:14,319
exist you can measure

221
00:07:17,830 --> 00:07:16,319
equilibrium you can measure temperature

222
00:07:19,830 --> 00:07:17,840
it's basically a definition

223
00:07:21,029 --> 00:07:19,840
and and also the third law is basically

224
00:07:23,830 --> 00:07:21,039
a throw away as well

225
00:07:25,270 --> 00:07:23,840
it talks about fiduciary entropies but

226
00:07:28,070 --> 00:07:25,280
the first and second laws

227
00:07:29,670 --> 00:07:28,080
they are the heart and they are the soul

228
00:07:30,950 --> 00:07:29,680
of thermodynamics they are the flesh and

229
00:07:32,790 --> 00:07:30,960
the blood

230
00:07:34,390 --> 00:07:32,800
this tells you as as mentioned

231
00:07:35,430 --> 00:07:34,400
previously it's a bookkeeping technique

232
00:07:37,430 --> 00:07:35,440
in a sense

233
00:07:39,990 --> 00:07:37,440
but the second law tells you what you

234
00:07:42,550 --> 00:07:40,000
can and cannot do

235
00:07:44,390 --> 00:07:42,560
and we understand this in our bones we

236
00:07:45,189 --> 00:07:44,400
have lots of colloquial statements about

237
00:07:46,869 --> 00:07:45,199
the second law

238
00:07:48,869 --> 00:07:46,879
heat flows from hot to cold not the

239
00:07:52,390 --> 00:07:48,879
other way around messes fill

240
00:07:54,550 --> 00:07:52,400
the space available to to them um

241
00:07:56,070 --> 00:07:54,560
murphy's laws anything can go wrong

242
00:07:57,670 --> 00:07:56,080
wrong at will situations tend to

243
00:07:59,350 --> 00:07:57,680
progress from bad to worse

244
00:08:01,909 --> 00:07:59,360
and of course the one you learned in

245
00:08:04,070 --> 00:08:01,919
kindergarten which is drilled into you

246
00:08:05,749 --> 00:08:04,080
for your whole life perpetual motion

247
00:08:07,350 --> 00:08:05,759
machines are impossible

248
00:08:09,670 --> 00:08:07,360
and this is probably the most damning of

249
00:08:10,469 --> 00:08:09,680
them the technical formulations of the

250
00:08:12,790 --> 00:08:10,479
second law

251
00:08:14,390 --> 00:08:12,800
are also numerous the one that i prefer

252
00:08:15,830 --> 00:08:14,400
is the kelvin punk one which goes back

253
00:08:17,430 --> 00:08:15,840
150 years

254
00:08:18,629 --> 00:08:17,440
no device operating in a cycle can

255
00:08:19,510 --> 00:08:18,639
produce the sole effect of the

256
00:08:21,909 --> 00:08:19,520
extraction

257
00:08:23,270 --> 00:08:21,919
of a quantity of heat from a reservoir

258
00:08:24,710 --> 00:08:23,280
and the performance of an equal quantity

259
00:08:27,189 --> 00:08:24,720
of work which basically says

260
00:08:28,950 --> 00:08:27,199
you can't take heat and turn it solely

261
00:08:30,950 --> 00:08:28,960
into work with nothing else happening

262
00:08:32,070 --> 00:08:30,960
you can't take that disorganized

263
00:08:36,469 --> 00:08:32,080
molecular motion

264
00:08:40,790 --> 00:08:39,350
um klausi's heat basically is one that

265
00:08:41,670 --> 00:08:40,800
says heat goes from hot to cold not the

266
00:08:44,149 --> 00:08:41,680
other way around

267
00:08:45,670 --> 00:08:44,159
perpetual motion machines are impossible

268
00:08:47,430 --> 00:08:45,680
perfect refrigerators are impossible

269
00:08:50,470 --> 00:08:47,440
perfect heating is not

270
00:08:51,430 --> 00:08:50,480
are impossible um all natural processes

271
00:08:52,949 --> 00:08:51,440
are irreversible

272
00:08:55,110 --> 00:08:52,959
the entropy of the universe constantly

273
00:08:57,509 --> 00:08:55,120
increases or at least never decreases

274
00:08:59,190 --> 00:08:57,519
we're all going to die okay so this the

275
00:09:00,790 --> 00:08:59,200
second law basically says that

276
00:09:03,190 --> 00:09:00,800
the universe tends toward greater

277
00:09:05,350 --> 00:09:03,200
disorder energy runs down

278
00:09:06,230 --> 00:09:05,360
the second law takes a tax on every

279
00:09:08,230 --> 00:09:06,240
single

280
00:09:09,670 --> 00:09:08,240
thermodynamic process in the universe it

281
00:09:11,190 --> 00:09:09,680
takes away some of that energy which you

282
00:09:13,350 --> 00:09:11,200
can never recover

283
00:09:15,190 --> 00:09:13,360
um in the book valada kopik and i wrote

284
00:09:16,790 --> 00:09:15,200
several years ago we actually found 21

285
00:09:17,910 --> 00:09:16,800
different formulations of the second law

286
00:09:19,190 --> 00:09:17,920
of thermodynamics

287
00:09:21,190 --> 00:09:19,200
some of which don't even seem to agree

288
00:09:22,389 --> 00:09:21,200
with each other but there are many

289
00:09:24,470 --> 00:09:22,399
different forms of it

290
00:09:26,389 --> 00:09:24,480
and as clifford truesdale once noted the

291
00:09:28,389 --> 00:09:26,399
famous historian of science

292
00:09:29,430 --> 00:09:28,399
every physicist knows exactly what the

293
00:09:31,269 --> 00:09:29,440
first and second law

294
00:09:34,829 --> 00:09:31,279
of thermodynamics are the only problem

295
00:09:36,310 --> 00:09:34,839
is no two physicists agree on what they

296
00:09:39,430 --> 00:09:36,320
are

297
00:09:40,630 --> 00:09:39,440
there is what i would call the second

298
00:09:44,230 --> 00:09:40,640
law of mystique

299
00:09:45,350 --> 00:09:44,240
there is a cocoon an intellectual cocoon

300
00:09:46,790 --> 00:09:45,360
around the second law

301
00:09:48,470 --> 00:09:46,800
that makes it almost impossible to

302
00:09:50,310 --> 00:09:48,480
discuss in a rational way

303
00:09:52,470 --> 00:09:50,320
in the scientific community and the most

304
00:09:54,070 --> 00:09:52,480
famous quote about it is by arthur

305
00:09:54,710 --> 00:09:54,080
eddington who happens to happen to have

306
00:09:56,710 --> 00:09:54,720
been

307
00:09:57,910 --> 00:09:56,720
a scientist of equal caliber and stature

308
00:10:00,150 --> 00:09:57,920
to albert einstein

309
00:10:01,269 --> 00:10:00,160
in the early 20th century and for those

310
00:10:03,190 --> 00:10:01,279
of you in the back

311
00:10:04,949 --> 00:10:03,200
the law that entropy increases the

312
00:10:06,710 --> 00:10:04,959
second law of thermodynamics

313
00:10:08,310 --> 00:10:06,720
holds i think the supreme position among

314
00:10:10,389 --> 00:10:08,320
the laws of nature

315
00:10:11,590 --> 00:10:10,399
if someone points out to you that your

316
00:10:13,350 --> 00:10:11,600
pet theory of the universe is in

317
00:10:14,949 --> 00:10:13,360
disagreement with maxwell's equations

318
00:10:15,910 --> 00:10:14,959
well so much the worst for maxwell's

319
00:10:17,509 --> 00:10:15,920
equations

320
00:10:18,949 --> 00:10:17,519
if it is found to be contradicted by

321
00:10:20,710 --> 00:10:18,959
observation well

322
00:10:22,069 --> 00:10:20,720
these experimentalists bungle things

323
00:10:23,190 --> 00:10:22,079
sometimes

324
00:10:24,550 --> 00:10:23,200
but if your theory is found to be

325
00:10:26,630 --> 00:10:24,560
against the second law of thermodynamics

326
00:10:28,310 --> 00:10:26,640
i can give you no hope

327
00:10:32,470 --> 00:10:28,320
there is nothing for it but to collapse

328
00:10:34,150 --> 00:10:32,480
and deepest humiliation

329
00:10:36,230 --> 00:10:34,160
and this is the general uh tenor of

330
00:10:39,590 --> 00:10:36,240
remarks regarding the second law

331
00:10:41,110 --> 00:10:39,600
it is an unquestioned axiom

332
00:10:43,430 --> 00:10:41,120
but one of the things that is often

333
00:10:46,630 --> 00:10:43,440
forgotten is that the laws of nature

334
00:10:49,750 --> 00:10:46,640
are not set in stone they are discovered

335
00:10:52,870 --> 00:10:49,760
and on purely epistemological grounds

336
00:10:54,870 --> 00:10:52,880
they cannot ever be fully proven

337
00:10:56,630 --> 00:10:54,880
they can only be verified and you can go

338
00:10:58,710 --> 00:10:56,640
no farther if you wish them to

339
00:11:00,470 --> 00:10:58,720
david hume's problem of induction to

340
00:11:02,150 --> 00:11:00,480
show that to be the case

341
00:11:03,670 --> 00:11:02,160
laws of nature are true because they are

342
00:11:05,750 --> 00:11:03,680
found to be true

343
00:11:08,710 --> 00:11:05,760
if you could prove them they would be

344
00:11:11,190 --> 00:11:08,720
theorems of deeper axioms

345
00:11:12,389 --> 00:11:11,200
so and furthermore laws must be updated

346
00:11:14,710 --> 00:11:12,399
on a regular basis

347
00:11:16,230 --> 00:11:14,720
and made more precise so let's take an

348
00:11:19,190 --> 00:11:16,240
example

349
00:11:20,310 --> 00:11:19,200
the laws of gravity back about 300 bc

350
00:11:23,190 --> 00:11:20,320
aristotle said

351
00:11:24,870 --> 00:11:23,200
things fall that's gravity why because

352
00:11:26,230 --> 00:11:24,880
they fall to where they like to be which

353
00:11:28,069 --> 00:11:26,240
is the ground

354
00:11:30,870 --> 00:11:28,079
and to show how persuasive that argument

355
00:11:33,430 --> 00:11:30,880
is it held 1500 years

356
00:11:34,790 --> 00:11:33,440
so he's a very smart guy newton came

357
00:11:36,550 --> 00:11:34,800
along and developed his

358
00:11:38,150 --> 00:11:36,560
basic theory of gravity universal theory

359
00:11:40,230 --> 00:11:38,160
of gravity which was updated a couple

360
00:11:42,069 --> 00:11:40,240
hundred years later by einstein

361
00:11:44,150 --> 00:11:42,079
but even within 20 30 years after

362
00:11:45,750 --> 00:11:44,160
einstein discovered his theory of

363
00:11:47,670 --> 00:11:45,760
of gravity the general theory of

364
00:11:48,230 --> 00:11:47,680
relativity it was already known that it

365
00:11:49,509 --> 00:11:48,240
was wrong

366
00:11:51,509 --> 00:11:49,519
because it didn't incorporate quantum

367
00:11:53,269 --> 00:11:51,519
mechanics and even to this day

368
00:11:55,670 --> 00:11:53,279
better part of a century later we do not

369
00:11:57,110 --> 00:11:55,680
have a viable theory of quantum gravity

370
00:11:59,590 --> 00:11:57,120
so even if something as simple as

371
00:12:03,269 --> 00:11:59,600
gravity constantly needs to be

372
00:12:05,509 --> 00:12:03,279
revised and updated on a regular basis

373
00:12:07,350 --> 00:12:05,519
conservation of energy is another one

374
00:12:08,629 --> 00:12:07,360
until about 1800 there were only two

375
00:12:10,790 --> 00:12:08,639
kinds of energy which were known

376
00:12:13,030 --> 00:12:10,800
connecticut potential energy of motion

377
00:12:14,949 --> 00:12:13,040
the energy of energy and the arrangement

378
00:12:18,150 --> 00:12:14,959
of material for instance

379
00:12:19,430 --> 00:12:18,160
gravitational potential energy by 1850

380
00:12:21,190 --> 00:12:19,440
it was discovered that heat

381
00:12:23,190 --> 00:12:21,200
random molecular motion was another kind

382
00:12:26,069 --> 00:12:23,200
of energy by 1905

383
00:12:27,670 --> 00:12:26,079
rest mass energy was discovered 1940

384
00:12:30,790 --> 00:12:27,680
zero-point energy was

385
00:12:32,710 --> 00:12:30,800
was um recognized well 1970s

386
00:12:33,910 --> 00:12:32,720
false vacuum energy from perhaps which

387
00:12:36,710 --> 00:12:33,920
the universe came from

388
00:12:39,269 --> 00:12:36,720
was discovered 1998 dark energy whenever

389
00:12:40,710 --> 00:12:39,279
a new form of a means by which to change

390
00:12:42,710 --> 00:12:40,720
the universe is discovered

391
00:12:43,990 --> 00:12:42,720
they simply invent with a new kind of

392
00:12:46,470 --> 00:12:44,000
energy is created

393
00:12:49,430 --> 00:12:46,480
and the first law of thermodynamics is

394
00:12:53,509 --> 00:12:51,750
now the history of the second law can

395
00:12:54,069 --> 00:12:53,519
really be traced back almost 200 years

396
00:12:57,269 --> 00:12:54,079
now

397
00:12:58,550 --> 00:12:57,279
to saudi carnot in the in heat engine

398
00:13:01,670 --> 00:12:58,560
efficiencies

399
00:13:03,350 --> 00:13:01,680
but by roughly 1910 no further

400
00:13:04,870 --> 00:13:03,360
statements of the second law

401
00:13:07,110 --> 00:13:04,880
really were being developed it was

402
00:13:09,829 --> 00:13:07,120
considered pretty much set in stone

403
00:13:12,470 --> 00:13:09,839
almost a full century ago since that

404
00:13:15,110 --> 00:13:12,480
time we've had special relativity

405
00:13:16,550 --> 00:13:15,120
we've had quantum mechanics chaos theory

406
00:13:19,269 --> 00:13:16,560
updates in cosmology

407
00:13:20,069 --> 00:13:19,279
virtually any basic law or or statement

408
00:13:21,430 --> 00:13:20,079
in physics

409
00:13:23,829 --> 00:13:21,440
had to have been updated in the last

410
00:13:25,910 --> 00:13:23,839
century but not the second law

411
00:13:28,949 --> 00:13:25,920
my form of the second law goes back 150

412
00:13:34,629 --> 00:13:32,470
so in general laws become rules of thumb

413
00:13:35,750 --> 00:13:34,639
things like the ideal gas law are are

414
00:13:38,310 --> 00:13:35,760
known not to be true

415
00:13:39,910 --> 00:13:38,320
there are no perfect ideal gases but

416
00:13:41,829 --> 00:13:39,920
it's close enough that we can use it we

417
00:13:42,230 --> 00:13:41,839
have charles's law gala sacks raoult's

418
00:13:45,750 --> 00:13:42,240
law

419
00:13:47,750 --> 00:13:45,760
considered approximations

420
00:13:48,790 --> 00:13:47,760
is it possible that the second law

421
00:13:51,910 --> 00:13:48,800
itself which was last

422
00:13:53,110 --> 00:13:51,920
updated 100 years ago roughly is also an

423
00:13:54,870 --> 00:13:53,120
approximation

424
00:13:56,790 --> 00:13:54,880
good for almost everything we deal with

425
00:14:00,550 --> 00:13:56,800
and good for everything we do deal with

426
00:14:01,829 --> 00:14:00,560
but that there might be some crimps some

427
00:14:03,990 --> 00:14:01,839
imperfections in it that might be

428
00:14:06,230 --> 00:14:04,000
exploited because if you can

429
00:14:07,750 --> 00:14:06,240
you can ex in principle you can extract

430
00:14:09,590 --> 00:14:07,760
heat from the environment the amount of

431
00:14:11,750 --> 00:14:09,600
energy in this in the room itself here

432
00:14:12,870 --> 00:14:11,760
is equal to several boxes of tnt enough

433
00:14:14,710 --> 00:14:12,880
energy to run this room

434
00:14:15,990 --> 00:14:14,720
forever since you can in principle then

435
00:14:19,110 --> 00:14:16,000
recycle that energy

436
00:14:23,750 --> 00:14:19,120
into lights computers projectors food

437
00:14:24,949 --> 00:14:23,760
chemical energy so if the 21st century

438
00:14:26,710 --> 00:14:24,959
actually is essentially when the second

439
00:14:28,389 --> 00:14:26,720
law is broken then the second law will

440
00:14:29,910 --> 00:14:28,399
just have to have a small update for any

441
00:14:31,590 --> 00:14:29,920
spontaneous process the entropy of the

442
00:14:34,949 --> 00:14:31,600
universe never decreases

443
00:14:38,230 --> 00:14:36,870
so challenges to the second law the

444
00:14:39,509 --> 00:14:38,240
first challenge to the second law was a

445
00:14:40,470 --> 00:14:39,519
thought experiment by james clerk

446
00:14:41,829 --> 00:14:40,480
maxwell himself

447
00:14:45,590 --> 00:14:41,839
one of the founders of statistical

448
00:14:48,629 --> 00:14:45,600
mechanics back in 1867 140 years ago

449
00:14:51,189 --> 00:14:48,639
and um and this demon

450
00:14:51,750 --> 00:14:51,199
consists of a of a quick fingered

451
00:14:53,750 --> 00:14:51,760
creature

452
00:14:55,829 --> 00:14:53,760
who can operate a trapdoor and all he

453
00:14:57,350 --> 00:14:55,839
does is operate this trapdoor letting

454
00:14:58,629 --> 00:14:57,360
molecules through when he wants

455
00:15:00,470 --> 00:14:58,639
and keeping out other ones when he

456
00:15:01,509 --> 00:15:00,480
doesn't want them and so you can imagine

457
00:15:03,509 --> 00:15:01,519
that this demon

458
00:15:04,710 --> 00:15:03,519
could selectively let molecules from

459
00:15:07,269 --> 00:15:04,720
this side of the room

460
00:15:08,790 --> 00:15:07,279
this side of the partition come through

461
00:15:10,389 --> 00:15:08,800
while blocking any molecules trying to

462
00:15:12,150 --> 00:15:10,399
come the other way

463
00:15:13,829 --> 00:15:12,160
if he does so then he creates a pressure

464
00:15:15,670 --> 00:15:13,839
differential a large pressure here

465
00:15:17,670 --> 00:15:15,680
and a vacuum over here in which case

466
00:15:19,750 --> 00:15:17,680
this piston can be pushed

467
00:15:21,670 --> 00:15:19,760
and do pressure volume work when he's

468
00:15:23,590 --> 00:15:21,680
done with that he opens up

469
00:15:24,790 --> 00:15:23,600
the store again let's all molecules go

470
00:15:25,750 --> 00:15:24,800
to the other side creates another

471
00:15:27,670 --> 00:15:25,760
pressure differential

472
00:15:29,110 --> 00:15:27,680
pushes them all pushes the piston back

473
00:15:31,350 --> 00:15:29,120
and in principle this creature

474
00:15:32,550 --> 00:15:31,360
could violate the second law it took

475
00:15:34,069 --> 00:15:32,560
better part well

476
00:15:35,590 --> 00:15:34,079
well over 100 years to figure out what's

477
00:15:36,069 --> 00:15:35,600
wrong with this and the problem with it

478
00:15:39,829 --> 00:15:36,079
is

479
00:15:40,710 --> 00:15:39,839
and has to remember and has to erase

480
00:15:42,150 --> 00:15:40,720
information

481
00:15:43,829 --> 00:15:42,160
and in the process of erasing

482
00:15:45,590 --> 00:15:43,839
information from his register

483
00:15:47,590 --> 00:15:45,600
in order to keep this process going in a

484
00:15:51,509 --> 00:15:47,600
cyclic way he

485
00:15:55,430 --> 00:15:53,910
since that time since james clerk

486
00:15:57,990 --> 00:15:55,440
maxwell there was a hiatus

487
00:15:59,590 --> 00:15:58,000
for over a hundred years before any any

488
00:16:01,350 --> 00:15:59,600
challenges to the second law

489
00:16:03,670 --> 00:16:01,360
made it into the scientific literature

490
00:16:05,990 --> 00:16:03,680
there was so complete and embargo on it

491
00:16:07,110 --> 00:16:06,000
this embargo was broken in about 1980 by

492
00:16:10,230 --> 00:16:07,120
two pioneers

493
00:16:10,870 --> 00:16:10,240
jack denier an american and lindsey

494
00:16:13,829 --> 00:16:10,880
gordon

495
00:16:15,430 --> 00:16:13,839
an uh new zealander they snuck a couple

496
00:16:17,509 --> 00:16:15,440
of articles into

497
00:16:19,430 --> 00:16:17,519
very good referee journals which first

498
00:16:21,110 --> 00:16:19,440
raised the hint that there might be a

499
00:16:23,910 --> 00:16:21,120
problem with the second law

500
00:16:24,790 --> 00:16:23,920
roughly about 1980. by 1990 a number of

501
00:16:27,030 --> 00:16:24,800
scientists had caught

502
00:16:28,790 --> 00:16:27,040
caught wind of this and there was really

503
00:16:31,030 --> 00:16:28,800
quite a revolution going on

504
00:16:32,949 --> 00:16:31,040
um here's a list of the modern

505
00:16:35,749 --> 00:16:32,959
challenges to the second law

506
00:16:36,629 --> 00:16:35,759
since 1980 by the research group the

507
00:16:38,949 --> 00:16:36,639
institution

508
00:16:39,910 --> 00:16:38,959
the country the number of researchers in

509
00:16:41,910 --> 00:16:39,920
the research group

510
00:16:44,790 --> 00:16:41,920
and the number of referee publications

511
00:16:46,949 --> 00:16:44,800
in um in physics chemistry journals

512
00:16:47,990 --> 00:16:46,959
that came out of these groups on the far

513
00:16:49,430 --> 00:16:48,000
right is

514
00:16:52,310 --> 00:16:49,440
a demarker as to whether these are

515
00:16:54,550 --> 00:16:52,320
experimentally measurable or not

516
00:16:55,590 --> 00:16:54,560
many of them particularly the group in

517
00:16:58,710 --> 00:16:55,600
in the czech republic

518
00:17:03,509 --> 00:16:58,720
were mostly were all theoretical as were

519
00:17:05,829 --> 00:17:03,519
the ones by denier but one's by nikolov

520
00:17:06,870 --> 00:17:05,839
and keefe and the ones at the university

521
00:17:09,750 --> 00:17:06,880
of san diego

522
00:17:12,309 --> 00:17:09,760
where i work are experimentally testable

523
00:17:14,150 --> 00:17:12,319
and i'd like to focus on those

524
00:17:15,990 --> 00:17:14,160
oh by the way the number of challenges

525
00:17:17,750 --> 00:17:16,000
that have been brought into the refereed

526
00:17:20,549 --> 00:17:17,760
scientific literature in the last

527
00:17:22,230 --> 00:17:20,559
30 years has been over two dozen in over

528
00:17:24,630 --> 00:17:22,240
60 articles

529
00:17:25,270 --> 00:17:24,640
just in the last 15 years most of those

530
00:17:30,710 --> 00:17:25,280
appeared

531
00:17:34,230 --> 00:17:32,470
the experimentally testable challenges

532
00:17:37,350 --> 00:17:34,240
uh the ones that um

533
00:17:38,870 --> 00:17:37,360
are most provocative um two of them work

534
00:17:40,470 --> 00:17:38,880
in the low temperature regime for with

535
00:17:43,909 --> 00:17:40,480
superconductors

536
00:17:46,710 --> 00:17:43,919
um neither has real commercial viability

537
00:17:48,150 --> 00:17:46,720
um the ones that um have been explored

538
00:17:49,750 --> 00:17:48,160
at the university of san diego

539
00:17:51,510 --> 00:17:49,760
um four out of five of those were in

540
00:17:52,470 --> 00:17:51,520
high temperature regimes or regimes

541
00:17:54,390 --> 00:17:52,480
which would not be commercially

542
00:17:56,150 --> 00:17:54,400
available available

543
00:17:57,590 --> 00:17:56,160
but there is a semiconductor one that

544
00:17:58,390 --> 00:17:57,600
that may be in and which is being

545
00:18:00,230 --> 00:17:58,400
pursued

546
00:18:01,990 --> 00:18:00,240
and the work is being supported by um

547
00:18:05,190 --> 00:18:02,000
partially by hub lab

548
00:18:08,710 --> 00:18:05,200
ed beardsworth you have your hand

549
00:18:09,830 --> 00:18:08,720
thank you ed um here's a list of the

550
00:18:11,270 --> 00:18:09,840
journals in which

551
00:18:13,750 --> 00:18:11,280
second law challenges have appeared in

552
00:18:16,150 --> 00:18:13,760
the last 20 years

553
00:18:17,510 --> 00:18:16,160
you'll notice many of these recognize

554
00:18:20,470 --> 00:18:17,520
many of the physical review physical

555
00:18:22,310 --> 00:18:20,480
review letters american journal physics

556
00:18:23,669 --> 00:18:22,320
chemical physics many of the top

557
00:18:26,950 --> 00:18:23,679
journals in in

558
00:18:28,710 --> 00:18:26,960
science have sponsored

559
00:18:29,990 --> 00:18:28,720
and accepted articles having to do with

560
00:18:31,270 --> 00:18:30,000
challenges to the second law

561
00:18:33,190 --> 00:18:31,280
so it can no longer be said that the

562
00:18:35,029 --> 00:18:33,200
second law is immune from discussion

563
00:18:37,350 --> 00:18:35,039
um it has not been violated though by

564
00:18:40,830 --> 00:18:37,360
any experiment and i myself will say

565
00:18:43,510 --> 00:18:40,840
the second law is inviolable until it

566
00:18:46,710 --> 00:18:43,520
isn't

567
00:18:47,990 --> 00:18:46,720
um alexei nikolov in in russia has been

568
00:18:49,830 --> 00:18:48,000
pursuing um

569
00:18:51,510 --> 00:18:49,840
in homogeneous superconducting loops

570
00:18:51,990 --> 00:18:51,520
these are mesoscopic in size roughly

571
00:18:53,909 --> 00:18:52,000
about

572
00:18:55,590 --> 00:18:53,919
a few microns in size they are

573
00:18:58,390 --> 00:18:55,600
superconducting loops of

574
00:18:58,789 --> 00:18:58,400
of aluminum and what he does with them

575
00:19:00,950 --> 00:18:58,799
is

576
00:19:02,150 --> 00:19:00,960
tries to rectify thermal fluctuations

577
00:19:03,590 --> 00:19:02,160
using what's called a little parts

578
00:19:05,029 --> 00:19:03,600
effect near the transition temperature

579
00:19:08,150 --> 00:19:05,039
for superconductivity

580
00:19:09,830 --> 00:19:08,160
he's gotten some anomalous behavior

581
00:19:11,590 --> 00:19:09,840
he has not been able to directly show

582
00:19:12,870 --> 00:19:11,600
he's been converted into work

583
00:19:14,150 --> 00:19:12,880
this work has probably has been

584
00:19:16,710 --> 00:19:14,160
suspended to my knowledge over the last

585
00:19:21,590 --> 00:19:16,720
five years due to lack of funding

586
00:19:23,590 --> 00:19:21,600
in russia peter keith an american

587
00:19:25,830 --> 00:19:23,600
has worked in this area as well i'm also

588
00:19:27,909 --> 00:19:25,840
making mesoscopic

589
00:19:29,909 --> 00:19:27,919
superconductors this would be a normal a

590
00:19:32,710 --> 00:19:29,919
normal conductor this would be a magnet

591
00:19:33,190 --> 00:19:32,720
and these would be magnetic field lines

592
00:19:34,470 --> 00:19:33,200
if the

593
00:19:36,789 --> 00:19:34,480
normal conductor is brought into the

594
00:19:39,190 --> 00:19:36,799
region of the magnetic field and then

595
00:19:40,310 --> 00:19:39,200
undergo the superconducting transition

596
00:19:41,990 --> 00:19:40,320
the meissner effect

597
00:19:43,350 --> 00:19:42,000
will expel the magnetic field lines out

598
00:19:45,270 --> 00:19:43,360
of the out of the conductor

599
00:19:46,630 --> 00:19:45,280
causing the conductor to be expelled and

600
00:19:48,150 --> 00:19:46,640
during this you can do work

601
00:19:50,549 --> 00:19:48,160
and so he proposes what's called a

602
00:19:53,110 --> 00:19:50,559
magneto coherent magneto-caloric

603
00:19:53,750 --> 00:19:53,120
engine in which he works out a work

604
00:19:56,950 --> 00:19:53,760
cycle

605
00:20:00,070 --> 00:19:56,960
i'm using microscopic superconductors to

606
00:20:02,630 --> 00:20:00,080
carry out work banking on the normal to

607
00:20:03,909 --> 00:20:02,640
superconducting transition

608
00:20:05,750 --> 00:20:03,919
the challenges of the university of san

609
00:20:09,350 --> 00:20:05,760
diego go back 20 years now

610
00:20:11,110 --> 00:20:09,360
first ideas were about 1990 late 1990

611
00:20:12,870 --> 00:20:11,120
and they have always focused on ones

612
00:20:13,669 --> 00:20:12,880
which are experimentally testable at

613
00:20:15,270 --> 00:20:13,679
least facets

614
00:20:17,190 --> 00:20:15,280
i should say the underlying physics can

615
00:20:18,310 --> 00:20:17,200
be directly tested so here's a

616
00:20:19,909 --> 00:20:18,320
compendium of them

617
00:20:21,350 --> 00:20:19,919
wherever you see a star indicates

618
00:20:22,070 --> 00:20:21,360
experiments have been done which

619
00:20:23,830 --> 00:20:22,080
corroborate

620
00:20:25,190 --> 00:20:23,840
the fundamental processes underlying the

621
00:20:27,029 --> 00:20:25,200
challenge

622
00:20:29,750 --> 00:20:27,039
i was trained as a plasma physicist so

623
00:20:32,230 --> 00:20:29,760
the first couple were in plasma physics

624
00:20:33,750 --> 00:20:32,240
my undergraduates in chemistry chemist

625
00:20:37,350 --> 00:20:33,760
chemical one was actually the first one

626
00:20:38,390 --> 00:20:37,360
i worked on and then from there these

627
00:20:40,390 --> 00:20:38,400
developed into

628
00:20:42,549 --> 00:20:40,400
various kinds of catalysts and solid

629
00:20:44,549 --> 00:20:42,559
state devices

630
00:20:45,909 --> 00:20:44,559
many of the effects which are discussed

631
00:20:47,510 --> 00:20:45,919
in these particular challenges have been

632
00:20:50,549 --> 00:20:47,520
corroborated by other researchers in

633
00:20:53,190 --> 00:20:50,559
their own independent research

634
00:20:54,070 --> 00:20:53,200
one of whom is sam miller at sandia

635
00:20:55,110 --> 00:20:54,080
national labs

636
00:20:56,789 --> 00:20:55,120
corroborates some of the chemical

637
00:20:58,149 --> 00:20:56,799
research we've done lindsey gordon

638
00:21:00,070 --> 00:20:58,159
corroborates some of the stuff i've

639
00:21:01,510 --> 00:21:00,080
proposed in terms of biology and jack

640
00:21:04,789 --> 00:21:01,520
denier

641
00:21:06,789 --> 00:21:04,799
in terms of the gas laws so

642
00:21:08,549 --> 00:21:06,799
from from the university of san diego

643
00:21:10,870 --> 00:21:08,559
these are the summary of the challenges

644
00:21:12,549 --> 00:21:10,880
on plasma 1 plasma 2 gravitational

645
00:21:14,310 --> 00:21:12,559
chemical solid state

646
00:21:15,830 --> 00:21:14,320
temperature range in which they operate

647
00:21:17,669 --> 00:21:15,840
the plasma ones operate at high

648
00:21:19,909 --> 00:21:17,679
temperature where plasmas exist um

649
00:21:21,190 --> 00:21:19,919
typically about 1500 kelvins so this is

650
00:21:22,870 --> 00:21:21,200
an inhospitable regime

651
00:21:25,190 --> 00:21:22,880
you have to work with exotic metals like

652
00:21:27,270 --> 00:21:25,200
tungsten and tantalum

653
00:21:29,510 --> 00:21:27,280
and molybdenum pressures have to be low

654
00:21:32,070 --> 00:21:29,520
power densities are minute commercial

655
00:21:33,350 --> 00:21:32,080
interest is virtually none the

656
00:21:36,470 --> 00:21:33,360
experiments which were done

657
00:21:39,110 --> 00:21:36,480
on these corroborated the process and

658
00:21:40,310 --> 00:21:39,120
in principle had have had these plasmas

659
00:21:41,270 --> 00:21:40,320
been actually created at room

660
00:21:44,070 --> 00:21:41,280
temperature rather than

661
00:21:45,270 --> 00:21:44,080
1500 kelvin then in principle these

662
00:21:47,029 --> 00:21:45,280
could have been claimed to have been

663
00:21:49,190 --> 00:21:47,039
true second law violators but because of

664
00:21:51,029 --> 00:21:49,200
the high temperature having to run gas

665
00:21:52,549 --> 00:21:51,039
vacuum pumps heating everything up the

666
00:21:53,990 --> 00:21:52,559
amount of entropy i created was

667
00:21:57,190 --> 00:21:54,000
a quadrillion times more than i could

668
00:22:00,789 --> 00:21:57,200
have harvested from these processes

669
00:22:03,270 --> 00:22:00,799
uh chemical processes um uh also um have

670
00:22:04,630 --> 00:22:03,280
high relatively high power densities but

671
00:22:06,710 --> 00:22:04,640
um generally um

672
00:22:08,070 --> 00:22:06,720
uh would not be commercially interesting

673
00:22:08,789 --> 00:22:08,080
i'd like to focus on the solid state

674
00:22:10,390 --> 00:22:08,799
challenges

675
00:22:12,149 --> 00:22:10,400
which have enormous power densities in

676
00:22:13,830 --> 00:22:12,159
principle greater than um in principle

677
00:22:15,669 --> 00:22:13,840
100 megawatts per cubic meter for these

678
00:22:18,950 --> 00:22:15,679
small devices they're microscopic

679
00:22:20,390 --> 00:22:18,960
or to begin with

680
00:22:22,070 --> 00:22:20,400
and they could have commercial interest

681
00:22:24,630 --> 00:22:22,080
these can operate anywhere from

682
00:22:27,830 --> 00:22:24,640
um the boiling point of liquid nitrogen

683
00:22:30,549 --> 00:22:27,840
up to about a thousand kelvin

684
00:22:32,390 --> 00:22:30,559
um the plasma experiments were basically

685
00:22:33,430 --> 00:22:32,400
heating up a cavity to a couple thousand

686
00:22:36,549 --> 00:22:33,440
degrees putting in

687
00:22:37,270 --> 00:22:36,559
disparate metals and putting in an

688
00:22:39,350 --> 00:22:37,280
ionizable

689
00:22:40,950 --> 00:22:39,360
metal like that could be surface ionized

690
00:22:42,390 --> 00:22:40,960
like potassium and seeing whether

691
00:22:43,909 --> 00:22:42,400
the amount of current or the amount of

692
00:22:45,830 --> 00:22:43,919
ionization caused by these different

693
00:22:47,909 --> 00:22:45,840
materials was different if it's if so

694
00:22:49,750 --> 00:22:47,919
it would generate a differential current

695
00:22:51,430 --> 00:22:49,760
and the experimental evidence

696
00:22:52,789 --> 00:22:51,440
indicated that the differential current

697
00:22:54,149 --> 00:22:52,799
which was measured between different

698
00:22:57,430 --> 00:22:54,159
types of metals

699
00:22:59,350 --> 00:22:57,440
say tanon versus hafnium

700
00:23:00,870 --> 00:22:59,360
tanton versus or konium oxide were

701
00:23:01,510 --> 00:23:00,880
indeed different whereas if the metals

702
00:23:03,510 --> 00:23:01,520
were matched

703
00:23:04,870 --> 00:23:03,520
you saw lesser or no difference

704
00:23:06,710 --> 00:23:04,880
indicating that

705
00:23:08,310 --> 00:23:06,720
a second law or a differential current

706
00:23:10,149 --> 00:23:08,320
could be developed between

707
00:23:11,830 --> 00:23:10,159
two materials at thermal equilibrium but

708
00:23:13,510 --> 00:23:11,840
the thermal equilibrium had to be very

709
00:23:15,830 --> 00:23:13,520
high in terms of temperature so this is

710
00:23:17,430 --> 00:23:15,840
impractical

711
00:23:19,830 --> 00:23:17,440
the chemical steady state equinox

712
00:23:21,750 --> 00:23:19,840
equilibria

713
00:23:23,350 --> 00:23:21,760
works in the following way let's say you

714
00:23:26,470 --> 00:23:23,360
have some diatomic hydrogen

715
00:23:28,470 --> 00:23:26,480
h2 and and you were to put diatomic

716
00:23:30,149 --> 00:23:28,480
hydrogen into a into an empty cavity

717
00:23:31,590 --> 00:23:30,159
which was made out of let's say surface

718
00:23:33,750 --> 00:23:31,600
type 2 all around

719
00:23:35,110 --> 00:23:33,760
and you have a piston which has surface

720
00:23:36,630 --> 00:23:35,120
type 2 on one side

721
00:23:38,070 --> 00:23:36,640
and a small patch of a different surface

722
00:23:39,270 --> 00:23:38,080
type let's say surface type one on the

723
00:23:41,590 --> 00:23:39,280
other

724
00:23:42,710 --> 00:23:41,600
now just for argument's sake let's say

725
00:23:44,710 --> 00:23:42,720
at a high temperature

726
00:23:46,630 --> 00:23:44,720
when these when diatomic hydrogen

727
00:23:48,710 --> 00:23:46,640
intersects and lands on the surface

728
00:23:49,669 --> 00:23:48,720
if it lands on surface two it simply

729
00:23:51,830 --> 00:23:49,679
bounces off or

730
00:23:53,510 --> 00:23:51,840
stays on the surface for a while and

731
00:23:55,590 --> 00:23:53,520
leaves as diatomic hydrogen

732
00:23:56,950 --> 00:23:55,600
and moreover if monoatomic hydrogen

733
00:23:57,590 --> 00:23:56,960
lands on the surface that skitters

734
00:23:59,909 --> 00:23:57,600
around

735
00:24:02,149 --> 00:23:59,919
finds itself forms diatomic hydrogen and

736
00:24:04,549 --> 00:24:02,159
then leaves

737
00:24:05,990 --> 00:24:04,559
on the other hand surface one let's say

738
00:24:06,950 --> 00:24:06,000
disassociates hydrogen so when a

739
00:24:09,190 --> 00:24:06,960
hydrogen

740
00:24:11,430 --> 00:24:09,200
molecule comes on it disassociates and

741
00:24:13,190 --> 00:24:11,440
comes off as two hydrogen atoms

742
00:24:14,870 --> 00:24:13,200
it's straightforward to show that under

743
00:24:16,630 --> 00:24:14,880
these conditions at thermal equilibrium

744
00:24:18,230 --> 00:24:16,640
if the mole molecules leave a thermal

745
00:24:19,909 --> 00:24:18,240
equilibrium from the surfaces

746
00:24:21,750 --> 00:24:19,919
that there will be a net pressure over

747
00:24:22,950 --> 00:24:21,760
surface one relative to surface two

748
00:24:25,909 --> 00:24:22,960
and there'll be a net pressure on this

749
00:24:27,350 --> 00:24:25,919
piston which can make it make it run

750
00:24:30,149 --> 00:24:27,360
this would be a way of extracting work

751
00:24:32,070 --> 00:24:30,159
from the heat bath this requires though

752
00:24:33,510 --> 00:24:32,080
that you have two different metals which

753
00:24:35,029 --> 00:24:33,520
have different propensities for

754
00:24:37,590 --> 00:24:35,039
disassociation

755
00:24:38,789 --> 00:24:37,600
of hydrogen 10 years ago i did

756
00:24:40,789 --> 00:24:38,799
experiments of

757
00:24:43,510 --> 00:24:40,799
with molybdenum and tungsten at high

758
00:24:45,110 --> 00:24:43,520
temperature around 2000 to 3000 kelvin

759
00:24:47,350 --> 00:24:45,120
in which i looked at the dissociation

760
00:24:47,909 --> 00:24:47,360
rate the amount of disassociation rate

761
00:24:54,230 --> 00:24:47,919
of

762
00:24:56,070 --> 00:24:54,240
versus molybdenum and indeed i saw

763
00:24:57,669 --> 00:24:56,080
distinct differences enough to actually

764
00:24:59,909 --> 00:24:57,679
drive a small

765
00:25:00,870 --> 00:24:59,919
low-power radiometer but again the

766
00:25:01,430 --> 00:25:00,880
experiments were done at high

767
00:25:03,510 --> 00:25:01,440
temperature

768
00:25:04,710 --> 00:25:03,520
and have no commercial interest and and

769
00:25:05,750 --> 00:25:04,720
have generated

770
00:25:08,390 --> 00:25:05,760
no interest from the scientific

771
00:25:10,390 --> 00:25:08,400
community okay which brings us

772
00:25:11,590 --> 00:25:10,400
brings me to the last of the challenges

773
00:25:12,830 --> 00:25:11,600
which my colleagues and i have been

774
00:25:15,830 --> 00:25:12,840
working on for roughly 10

775
00:25:16,870 --> 00:25:15,840
uh better part of 10 years now which

776
00:25:19,190 --> 00:25:16,880
deals with

777
00:25:20,630 --> 00:25:19,200
semiconductors and these have the most

778
00:25:21,350 --> 00:25:20,640
possible commercial application in my

779
00:25:23,430 --> 00:25:21,360
opinion

780
00:25:25,110 --> 00:25:23,440
aside maybe from some gas cycles that

781
00:25:26,870 --> 00:25:25,120
have been proposed ken round who will

782
00:25:28,070 --> 00:25:26,880
speak next will propose a gas cycle

783
00:25:30,630 --> 00:25:28,080
which could have very high power

784
00:25:34,230 --> 00:25:33,110
so let's talk about silicon devices

785
00:25:36,070 --> 00:25:34,240
everything all this all the

786
00:25:38,149 --> 00:25:36,080
semiconductor devices that you have

787
00:25:39,750 --> 00:25:38,159
in your at your disposal all your ipods

788
00:25:41,990 --> 00:25:39,760
on blackberries computers

789
00:25:42,950 --> 00:25:42,000
are all based on silicon but special

790
00:25:45,669 --> 00:25:42,960
kind of silicon

791
00:25:46,870 --> 00:25:45,679
silicon which is doped and i say doped

792
00:25:49,350 --> 00:25:46,880
that simply means

793
00:25:51,350 --> 00:25:49,360
that you have some a silicon lattice

794
00:25:53,190 --> 00:25:51,360
which has a small impurity in it

795
00:25:55,350 --> 00:25:53,200
of let's say one part and ten thousand

796
00:25:58,390 --> 00:25:55,360
one part in a million of something like

797
00:26:00,470 --> 00:25:58,400
phosphorus for in doping connected to

798
00:26:01,750 --> 00:26:00,480
another piece of silicon which might

799
00:26:03,909 --> 00:26:01,760
have what's called p

800
00:26:04,789 --> 00:26:03,919
doping which would have something like

801
00:26:06,950 --> 00:26:04,799
boron in it

802
00:26:08,549 --> 00:26:06,960
in a very small concentration when you

803
00:26:09,110 --> 00:26:08,559
put small amounts of impurity into

804
00:26:11,029 --> 00:26:09,120
silicon

805
00:26:13,269 --> 00:26:11,039
you change its electrical conductivity

806
00:26:15,269 --> 00:26:13,279
and electrical properties enormously

807
00:26:17,110 --> 00:26:15,279
so what could you imagine well with

808
00:26:19,990 --> 00:26:17,120
n-type doping you have a surplus

809
00:26:21,110 --> 00:26:20,000
or an excess of mobile electrons in this

810
00:26:23,110 --> 00:26:21,120
lattice

811
00:26:25,350 --> 00:26:23,120
in the p-type you have an excess of what

812
00:26:28,549 --> 00:26:25,360
are called positive holes

813
00:26:31,590 --> 00:26:28,559
so you can imagine that if you have this

814
00:26:33,510 --> 00:26:31,600
n and p type material joined that some

815
00:26:34,950 --> 00:26:33,520
of the electrons would diffuse over into

816
00:26:35,430 --> 00:26:34,960
the p-type material and some of the

817
00:26:37,750 --> 00:26:35,440
holes

818
00:26:39,190 --> 00:26:37,760
would diffuse into the n-type material

819
00:26:40,630 --> 00:26:39,200
now to give you an example of how that

820
00:26:41,830 --> 00:26:40,640
might be let's say we were to take

821
00:26:43,269 --> 00:26:41,840
all the men in this room and put them

822
00:26:44,149 --> 00:26:43,279
against and put them on this half of the

823
00:26:45,830 --> 00:26:44,159
room

824
00:26:48,070 --> 00:26:45,840
and tie them with bungee cords to the

825
00:26:49,510 --> 00:26:48,080
wall and put all the women on this side

826
00:26:50,630 --> 00:26:49,520
of the room and tie bungee cords on them

827
00:26:52,950 --> 00:26:50,640
to that wall

828
00:26:54,310 --> 00:26:52,960
now not men and women men and women are

829
00:26:56,149 --> 00:26:54,320
naturally going to intermingle

830
00:26:58,549 --> 00:26:56,159
so they will slowly slowly enter

831
00:27:00,149 --> 00:26:58,559
penetrate across the boundary

832
00:27:01,669 --> 00:27:00,159
but eventually they'll be arrested by

833
00:27:02,950 --> 00:27:01,679
the bungee cord but they'll be energy

834
00:27:05,110 --> 00:27:02,960
stored in those bungee cords

835
00:27:06,230 --> 00:27:05,120
and and in this case similar thing

836
00:27:08,710 --> 00:27:06,240
happens

837
00:27:10,390 --> 00:27:08,720
the electrons go to this side the holes

838
00:27:12,230 --> 00:27:10,400
migrate to this side but because of the

839
00:27:14,870 --> 00:27:12,240
charge imbalance of positive

840
00:27:16,390 --> 00:27:14,880
and negative charges in the lattice that

841
00:27:16,950 --> 00:27:16,400
the an electric field is formed which

842
00:27:19,909 --> 00:27:16,960
arrests

843
00:27:21,269 --> 00:27:19,919
further diffusion this is well known

844
00:27:23,029 --> 00:27:21,279
there is no argument about this this is

845
00:27:24,310 --> 00:27:23,039
called the depletion region of a semi of

846
00:27:26,230 --> 00:27:24,320
a pn diode

847
00:27:27,669 --> 00:27:26,240
and the electric fields that are

848
00:27:29,029 --> 00:27:27,679
sustained inside of here

849
00:27:30,470 --> 00:27:29,039
are on the order of something like 10 to

850
00:27:31,830 --> 00:27:30,480
the seventh volts per meter in other

851
00:27:32,470 --> 00:27:31,840
words 10 million volts per meter

852
00:27:34,950 --> 00:27:32,480
enormous

853
00:27:37,190 --> 00:27:34,960
voltages but the voltage drop is only

854
00:27:39,750 --> 00:27:37,200
about a half to one volt so fairly low

855
00:27:42,389 --> 00:27:39,760
voltage very high electric fields

856
00:27:44,950 --> 00:27:42,399
now imagine you took this pn diode and

857
00:27:47,990 --> 00:27:44,960
bent it like a pretzel

858
00:27:50,630 --> 00:27:48,000
here we have it again n-type built into

859
00:27:51,830 --> 00:27:50,640
a horseshoe pattern and a p-type

860
00:27:53,350 --> 00:27:51,840
similarly

861
00:27:54,549 --> 00:27:53,360
here we have the junction at the top

862
00:27:56,310 --> 00:27:54,559
where you have the diffusion of

863
00:27:57,830 --> 00:27:56,320
electrons and holes forming an electric

864
00:28:00,389 --> 00:27:57,840
field here

865
00:28:01,269 --> 00:28:00,399
at the bottom side though i have left an

866
00:28:04,950 --> 00:28:01,279
open

867
00:28:08,310 --> 00:28:04,960
vacuum gap where no electrons or holes

868
00:28:10,630 --> 00:28:08,320
can diffuse well it turns out that based

869
00:28:12,549 --> 00:28:10,640
on conservation of energy kirchhoff's

870
00:28:13,990 --> 00:28:12,559
loop rule or faraday's off one of

871
00:28:17,269 --> 00:28:14,000
maxwell's equations

872
00:28:19,750 --> 00:28:17,279
it's easy to show that if you take

873
00:28:20,870 --> 00:28:19,760
an electron or or a charge of any sort

874
00:28:23,669 --> 00:28:20,880
and move it around

875
00:28:24,870 --> 00:28:23,679
this loop if it starts here and goes up

876
00:28:26,310 --> 00:28:24,880
a potential

877
00:28:27,990 --> 00:28:26,320
and then comes around this loop and

878
00:28:28,470 --> 00:28:28,000
comes back to where it started it had

879
00:28:30,549 --> 00:28:28,480
better go

880
00:28:32,549 --> 00:28:30,559
down a certain potential drop as well

881
00:28:34,389 --> 00:28:32,559
somewhere else in this in this circuit

882
00:28:36,149 --> 00:28:34,399
so if you have a potential drop of of a

883
00:28:37,590 --> 00:28:36,159
volt here you have to have a potential

884
00:28:39,029 --> 00:28:37,600
rise somewhere else

885
00:28:40,230 --> 00:28:39,039
it can't be anywhere else in the bulk

886
00:28:41,750 --> 00:28:40,240
because if you did you'd have electric

887
00:28:43,830 --> 00:28:41,760
fields here which would cause currents

888
00:28:46,389 --> 00:28:43,840
therefore it can't be in the bulk it

889
00:28:49,269 --> 00:28:46,399
must be across the gap

890
00:28:49,909 --> 00:28:49,279
so you can make us an airtight analytic

891
00:28:52,630 --> 00:28:49,919
argument

892
00:28:53,110 --> 00:28:52,640
that beca that in a p in junction of

893
00:28:57,669 --> 00:28:53,120
this

894
00:28:59,190 --> 00:28:57,679
should have a very large electric field

895
00:29:00,710 --> 00:28:59,200
the voltage drop here has to be

896
00:29:01,590 --> 00:29:00,720
expressed as a voltage drop here in the

897
00:29:03,590 --> 00:29:01,600
opposite sense

898
00:29:05,190 --> 00:29:03,600
and as a result the electric field here

899
00:29:06,950 --> 00:29:05,200
can be quite intense

900
00:29:08,630 --> 00:29:06,960
the electric field here is usually

901
00:29:09,909 --> 00:29:08,640
smeared out over a distance of about a

902
00:29:11,590 --> 00:29:09,919
micron or so

903
00:29:13,510 --> 00:29:11,600
down here you can make it 100 times less

904
00:29:15,190 --> 00:29:13,520
if you wish by making this gap narrower

905
00:29:16,710 --> 00:29:15,200
in which case you can make the electric

906
00:29:18,310 --> 00:29:16,720
field enormous you can make it

907
00:29:21,029 --> 00:29:18,320
10 or 100 times greater than it is in

908
00:29:22,630 --> 00:29:21,039
here in doing so you can store

909
00:29:24,070 --> 00:29:22,640
electrostatic potential energy in the

910
00:29:25,430 --> 00:29:24,080
electric field those of you who do

911
00:29:27,830 --> 00:29:25,440
physics or electrical engineering

912
00:29:29,510 --> 00:29:27,840
know that a capacitor does just this a

913
00:29:31,190 --> 00:29:29,520
capacitor is a device which stores

914
00:29:33,750 --> 00:29:31,200
energy and charges or if you wish

915
00:29:34,789 --> 00:29:33,760
in electric field energy so this is a

916
00:29:37,190 --> 00:29:34,799
capacitor

917
00:29:38,310 --> 00:29:37,200
which is charged and is charged by

918
00:29:40,870 --> 00:29:38,320
thermal motion

919
00:29:43,269 --> 00:29:40,880
and is charged forever this is a

920
00:29:45,029 --> 00:29:43,279
thermally charged capacitor

921
00:29:47,430 --> 00:29:45,039
until you find some way maybe of

922
00:29:49,909 --> 00:29:47,440
exploiting that energy

923
00:29:51,909 --> 00:29:49,919
this is a simulation done with advanced

924
00:29:54,470 --> 00:29:51,919
semiconductor software from

925
00:29:55,590 --> 00:29:54,480
the bay area savaco international they

926
00:29:57,510 --> 00:29:55,600
conducted

927
00:29:59,510 --> 00:29:57,520
a number of simulations for us we did

928
00:30:00,710 --> 00:29:59,520
our own both our simulations agreed with

929
00:30:02,310 --> 00:30:00,720
each other they did theirs in an

930
00:30:03,990 --> 00:30:02,320
unbiased way and they found that indeed

931
00:30:04,549 --> 00:30:04,000
when you make an np type material and

932
00:30:06,149 --> 00:30:04,559
join them

933
00:30:07,990 --> 00:30:06,159
you see electric fields up here which

934
00:30:09,190 --> 00:30:08,000
are fairly weak on the order of ten to

935
00:30:09,909 --> 00:30:09,200
the fourth ten to the fifth volts per

936
00:30:11,830 --> 00:30:09,919
meter

937
00:30:13,190 --> 00:30:11,840
but in this gap you see enormously

938
00:30:14,630 --> 00:30:13,200
intense electric fields

939
00:30:16,630 --> 00:30:14,640
one's on the order of ten to the seventh

940
00:30:17,510 --> 00:30:16,640
volts per meter so this thermal

941
00:30:19,190 --> 00:30:17,520
capacitor

942
00:30:20,789 --> 00:30:19,200
has can be shown analytically it can be

943
00:30:23,029 --> 00:30:20,799
shown by numerical simulation

944
00:30:24,630 --> 00:30:23,039
and there's a lot of corroborative

945
00:30:25,909 --> 00:30:24,640
evidence from the solid state community

946
00:30:28,789 --> 00:30:25,919
that has already been measured

947
00:30:31,830 --> 00:30:28,799
experimentally as well

948
00:30:33,750 --> 00:30:31,840
so imagine what you might be able to do

949
00:30:36,549 --> 00:30:33,760
i'd like to imagine first a very simple

950
00:30:37,990 --> 00:30:36,559
device let's say we have

951
00:30:39,590 --> 00:30:38,000
something we'll call a hammer which is a

952
00:30:41,990 --> 00:30:39,600
movable um

953
00:30:43,830 --> 00:30:42,000
top of a capacitor just a metallic plate

954
00:30:44,549 --> 00:30:43,840
hooked to a spring with spring constant

955
00:30:48,310 --> 00:30:44,559
k

956
00:30:50,070 --> 00:30:48,320
supply power supply comes up and is

957
00:30:52,149 --> 00:30:50,080
hooked to the bottom part of this metal

958
00:30:53,909 --> 00:30:52,159
another metal plate across a vacuum gap

959
00:30:55,190 --> 00:30:53,919
and this is called the anvil

960
00:30:57,430 --> 00:30:55,200
now you can imagine the following

961
00:30:59,990 --> 00:30:57,440
happening this voltage power supply

962
00:31:01,110 --> 00:31:00,000
will charge up this could the side of

963
00:31:03,110 --> 00:31:01,120
the capacitor on this side of the

964
00:31:04,630 --> 00:31:03,120
capacitor positive here negative here

965
00:31:06,149 --> 00:31:04,640
and you'll have an attraction of the top

966
00:31:07,830 --> 00:31:06,159
plate against the bottom plate

967
00:31:08,950 --> 00:31:07,840
when they come together the chargers

968
00:31:10,070 --> 00:31:08,960
will annihilate each other

969
00:31:12,549 --> 00:31:10,080
instantaneously

970
00:31:14,230 --> 00:31:12,559
the capacitor will discharge but of

971
00:31:17,750 --> 00:31:14,240
course it has

972
00:31:19,909 --> 00:31:17,760
at that point um

973
00:31:21,590 --> 00:31:19,919
pulled on this spring which will retract

974
00:31:23,430 --> 00:31:21,600
back the hammer

975
00:31:25,110 --> 00:31:23,440
the hammer will recharge on the time

976
00:31:26,070 --> 00:31:25,120
scale set by the capacitance of these

977
00:31:27,669 --> 00:31:26,080
plates and the

978
00:31:29,990 --> 00:31:27,679
resistance of the resistor what's called

979
00:31:31,830 --> 00:31:30,000
the rc time constant

980
00:31:33,669 --> 00:31:31,840
now if the natural mechanical

981
00:31:36,149 --> 00:31:33,679
oscillation frequency of this hammer

982
00:31:36,789 --> 00:31:36,159
equals the time constant for the

983
00:31:39,590 --> 00:31:36,799
recharge

984
00:31:40,789 --> 00:31:39,600
you can imagine the the the top plate

985
00:31:42,389 --> 00:31:40,799
charging up

986
00:31:44,470 --> 00:31:42,399
being attracted down touching

987
00:31:47,430 --> 00:31:44,480
discharging being pulled back

988
00:31:48,310 --> 00:31:47,440
recharging being pulled back discharging

989
00:31:51,590 --> 00:31:48,320
being pulled back

990
00:31:53,110 --> 00:31:51,600
recharging basically forever

991
00:31:55,269 --> 00:31:53,120
this is called an electromechanical

992
00:31:57,350 --> 00:31:55,279
oscillator these are very common

993
00:31:59,350 --> 00:31:57,360
in technology in fact if you have an old

994
00:32:01,190 --> 00:31:59,360
regular quartz wrist watch

995
00:32:02,389 --> 00:32:01,200
this is an electromechanical oscillator

996
00:32:03,669 --> 00:32:02,399
so these are well known

997
00:32:05,509 --> 00:32:03,679
a student of mine and i built one of

998
00:32:06,950 --> 00:32:05,519
these things in the afternoon and one

999
00:32:08,549 --> 00:32:06,960
during one afternoon with a high volt

1000
00:32:09,990 --> 00:32:08,559
high voltage power supply and it worked

1001
00:32:11,110 --> 00:32:10,000
like a charm not probably not a problem

1002
00:32:13,110 --> 00:32:11,120
at all

1003
00:32:14,710 --> 00:32:13,120
but let's translate this now let's

1004
00:32:17,190 --> 00:32:14,720
translate this to a system

1005
00:32:18,310 --> 00:32:17,200
in which instead of having a power

1006
00:32:20,470 --> 00:32:18,320
supply here

1007
00:32:21,669 --> 00:32:20,480
creating the voltage we have depletion

1008
00:32:25,430 --> 00:32:21,679
regions between an n

1009
00:32:27,590 --> 00:32:25,440
and p semiconductor creating the voltage

1010
00:32:29,509 --> 00:32:27,600
in this case you have the same electric

1011
00:32:31,990 --> 00:32:29,519
field across this hammer

1012
00:32:32,549 --> 00:32:32,000
and anvil gap as you had here and if

1013
00:32:35,669 --> 00:32:32,559
these are

1014
00:32:36,389 --> 00:32:35,679
thin springs thin leaf cantilevers of

1015
00:32:38,549 --> 00:32:36,399
silicon

1016
00:32:40,310 --> 00:32:38,559
they would they would take the the place

1017
00:32:42,389 --> 00:32:40,320
of this mechanical spring

1018
00:32:44,549 --> 00:32:42,399
and you can and we've also devised ways

1019
00:32:46,389 --> 00:32:44,559
in in inserting resistances into these

1020
00:32:48,149 --> 00:32:46,399
lines to vary the resistance

1021
00:32:49,990 --> 00:32:48,159
in doing so you can make an

1022
00:32:51,909 --> 00:32:50,000
electromechanical oscillator

1023
00:32:53,750 --> 00:32:51,919
here which is equivalent to the

1024
00:32:55,990 --> 00:32:53,760
electromechanical oscillator here

1025
00:32:57,509 --> 00:32:56,000
the difference being this one is is

1026
00:33:00,549 --> 00:32:57,519
powered by the wall plug

1027
00:33:01,909 --> 00:33:00,559
or by by a coal burning plant and this

1028
00:33:05,669 --> 00:33:01,919
is powered by

1029
00:33:07,110 --> 00:33:05,679
the pn junction you can work out work

1030
00:33:08,950 --> 00:33:07,120
cycles for this and show that

1031
00:33:11,990 --> 00:33:08,960
um that that indeed you can make work

1032
00:33:14,710 --> 00:33:12,000
cycles out of this cantilever device

1033
00:33:17,269 --> 00:33:14,720
we built prototypes about a year ago of

1034
00:33:18,470 --> 00:33:17,279
a torsional version of this oscillator

1035
00:33:20,549 --> 00:33:18,480
which ran into problems during the

1036
00:33:21,269 --> 00:33:20,559
fabrication process we decided to back

1037
00:33:23,750 --> 00:33:21,279
up

1038
00:33:24,549 --> 00:33:23,760
and look at two-dimensional versions of

1039
00:33:26,789 --> 00:33:24,559
it

1040
00:33:28,070 --> 00:33:26,799
these are electron micrographs of

1041
00:33:29,830 --> 00:33:28,080
silicon chips which we just had

1042
00:33:33,269 --> 00:33:29,840
fabricated and finished last week

1043
00:33:35,110 --> 00:33:33,279
which incorporate various ideas which i

1044
00:33:37,509 --> 00:33:35,120
just discussed

1045
00:33:39,350 --> 00:33:37,519
here's a gap where you have p-type

1046
00:33:40,789 --> 00:33:39,360
silicon here n-type silicon here we will

1047
00:33:42,230 --> 00:33:40,799
be using kelvin probes to measure the

1048
00:33:43,909 --> 00:33:42,240
electric field in this gap

1049
00:33:45,430 --> 00:33:43,919
to see whether indeed the intense

1050
00:33:48,389 --> 00:33:45,440
electric fields that we predict

1051
00:33:49,029 --> 00:33:48,399
are there we have made cantilevers where

1052
00:33:51,909 --> 00:33:49,039
we have a

1053
00:33:53,509 --> 00:33:51,919
we have nnp type semiconductors offset

1054
00:33:55,110 --> 00:33:53,519
by a very narrow gap

1055
00:33:56,710 --> 00:33:55,120
and we will measure whether when we

1056
00:33:58,149 --> 00:33:56,720
close this gap mechanically whether we

1057
00:33:59,430 --> 00:33:58,159
see the discharge we predict

1058
00:34:01,590 --> 00:33:59,440
and when we pull it back that it

1059
00:34:04,830 --> 00:34:01,600
recharges if that happens

1060
00:34:06,789 --> 00:34:04,840
we are very close to making a full

1061
00:34:08,389 --> 00:34:06,799
three-dimensional second law of violator

1062
00:34:10,869 --> 00:34:08,399
in my opinion

1063
00:34:12,149 --> 00:34:10,879
we have apparatus built for tests of

1064
00:34:15,589 --> 00:34:12,159
these these are set up

1065
00:34:18,230 --> 00:34:15,599
at sandia national labs and we pursued

1066
00:34:19,829 --> 00:34:18,240
probably the next year or so so the

1067
00:34:20,869 --> 00:34:19,839
research status with regard to our

1068
00:34:22,230 --> 00:34:20,879
second law of work

1069
00:34:25,109 --> 00:34:22,240
we are we currently have second law of

1070
00:34:27,270 --> 00:34:25,119
diodes two-dimensional diodes in hand

1071
00:34:28,310 --> 00:34:27,280
and we'll be testing them the next um

1072
00:34:31,589 --> 00:34:28,320
during the summer

1073
00:34:33,669 --> 00:34:31,599
and we have plans um in process

1074
00:34:36,629 --> 00:34:33,679
to build 3-d torsional oscillators to

1075
00:34:39,990 --> 00:34:36,639
test the hypothesis

1076
00:34:41,430 --> 00:34:40,000
so in the end what what a number of

1077
00:34:43,430 --> 00:34:41,440
researchers and i propose

1078
00:34:45,750 --> 00:34:43,440
is that the second law although it is

1079
00:34:47,430 --> 00:34:45,760
now considered absolute

1080
00:34:48,629 --> 00:34:47,440
have a number of possible challenges

1081
00:34:49,990 --> 00:34:48,639
that have been leveled against it which

1082
00:34:51,190 --> 00:34:50,000
have received no response from the

1083
00:34:53,030 --> 00:34:51,200
scientific community

1084
00:34:54,230 --> 00:34:53,040
the community is silent and has found no

1085
00:34:57,829 --> 00:34:54,240
way to

1086
00:35:01,430 --> 00:35:00,150
refute these challenges and we but we

1087
00:35:01,990 --> 00:35:01,440
are now in the position where the burden

1088
00:35:05,109 --> 00:35:02,000
of proof falls

1089
00:35:07,109 --> 00:35:05,119
on us to do the experiment theorists do

1090
00:35:08,470 --> 00:35:07,119
not make truth nature has its truth

1091
00:35:10,069 --> 00:35:08,480
which we have to discover

1092
00:35:12,310 --> 00:35:10,079
so again as i said the second law is

1093
00:35:14,390 --> 00:35:12,320
inviolable until it is no longer

1094
00:35:16,150 --> 00:35:14,400
and there's our in our goal to change

1095
00:35:16,550 --> 00:35:16,160
the rules of not only the second laws

1096
00:35:19,750 --> 00:35:16,560
game

1097
00:35:28,829 --> 00:35:19,760
currently played

1098
00:35:28,839 --> 00:35:43,750
questions

1099
00:35:46,790 --> 00:35:45,349
there are two versions of the entropy

1100
00:35:48,630 --> 00:35:46,800
one is information

1101
00:35:50,630 --> 00:35:48,640
the other is emotion of particles

1102
00:35:51,589 --> 00:35:50,640
correct it's not obvious to me that they

1103
00:35:54,390 --> 00:35:51,599
are the same

1104
00:35:55,349 --> 00:35:54,400
right uh so can you comment on that and

1105
00:35:58,470 --> 00:35:55,359
also

1106
00:35:59,589 --> 00:35:58,480
would you say whether the work you're

1107
00:36:01,670 --> 00:35:59,599
doing

1108
00:36:03,030 --> 00:36:01,680
implicitly invalidates an actual demon

1109
00:36:05,190 --> 00:36:03,040
argument

1110
00:36:07,750 --> 00:36:05,200
okay sure um so let's let's back up the

1111
00:36:09,430 --> 00:36:07,760
maxwell demon as proposed by maxwell 140

1112
00:36:11,589 --> 00:36:09,440
years ago

1113
00:36:13,270 --> 00:36:11,599
was a thought experiment which basically

1114
00:36:16,230 --> 00:36:13,280
says can you

1115
00:36:17,510 --> 00:36:16,240
shepherd particles in by either by

1116
00:36:18,550 --> 00:36:17,520
temperature or location to create

1117
00:36:22,870 --> 00:36:18,560
pressure differentials

1118
00:36:23,510 --> 00:36:22,880
okay and it and the way maxwell proposed

1119
00:36:26,710 --> 00:36:23,520
it

1120
00:36:29,510 --> 00:36:26,720
and and

1121
00:36:31,510 --> 00:36:29,520
the the information theorists starting

1122
00:36:32,710 --> 00:36:31,520
back in the 1960s began to realize when

1123
00:36:33,910 --> 00:36:32,720
they were looking at computers

1124
00:36:35,109 --> 00:36:33,920
that indeed if you're going to have a

1125
00:36:36,790 --> 00:36:35,119
computer you have to do something with

1126
00:36:37,750 --> 00:36:36,800
your excess information if you want to

1127
00:36:41,030 --> 00:36:37,760
erase a bit

1128
00:36:42,630 --> 00:36:41,040
information

1129
00:36:45,030 --> 00:36:42,640
but that increases the entropy of the

1130
00:36:45,829 --> 00:36:45,040
universe so if you make a maxwell demon

1131
00:36:48,069 --> 00:36:45,839
in other words

1132
00:36:49,109 --> 00:36:48,079
a thinking one that records the position

1133
00:36:51,589 --> 00:36:49,119
of molecules

1134
00:36:52,550 --> 00:36:51,599
and and keeps track of them in some sort

1135
00:36:55,030 --> 00:36:52,560
of register

1136
00:36:56,310 --> 00:36:55,040
if it's going to do it in a cyclic way

1137
00:37:00,230 --> 00:36:56,320
then ultimately

1138
00:37:02,069 --> 00:37:00,240
it has to go back and forget what it

1139
00:37:03,750 --> 00:37:02,079
uh the previous cycle otherwise it's no

1140
00:37:04,550 --> 00:37:03,760
longer a cyclic process but in the very

1141
00:37:06,150 --> 00:37:04,560
process

1142
00:37:07,910 --> 00:37:06,160
of forgetting in other words erasing a

1143
00:37:09,030 --> 00:37:07,920
bit of information it creates a bit of

1144
00:37:11,190 --> 00:37:09,040
entropy

1145
00:37:12,870 --> 00:37:11,200
and that apparently is what finally

1146
00:37:14,310 --> 00:37:12,880
foils the maxwell demon

1147
00:37:16,390 --> 00:37:14,320
unfortunately many scientists have

1148
00:37:18,230 --> 00:37:16,400
conflated thinking maxwell demons

1149
00:37:19,670 --> 00:37:18,240
against ones which naturally

1150
00:37:20,950 --> 00:37:19,680
arranged themselves like the ones which

1151
00:37:21,670 --> 00:37:20,960
have been explored over the last 20

1152
00:37:24,150 --> 00:37:21,680
years

1153
00:37:25,510 --> 00:37:24,160
so the maxwell demon as it's currently

1154
00:37:26,630 --> 00:37:25,520
understood is basically a straw man

1155
00:37:27,589 --> 00:37:26,640
because it incorporates the thinking

1156
00:37:31,430 --> 00:37:27,599
creatures ours are

1157
00:37:33,349 --> 00:37:31,440
maxwell zombies they don't think okay

1158
00:37:34,950 --> 00:37:33,359
uh we actually have a fairly long time

1159
00:37:37,190 --> 00:37:34,960
for questions because

1160
00:37:38,390 --> 00:37:37,200
daniel ended ahead of schedule so before

1161
00:37:40,310 --> 00:37:38,400
we go to the next question

1162
00:37:41,589 --> 00:37:40,320
i would like to make one comment which

1163
00:37:43,430 --> 00:37:41,599
is that

1164
00:37:44,870 --> 00:37:43,440
uh i believe you gave a talk very

1165
00:37:46,950 --> 00:37:44,880
similar to this one about

1166
00:37:48,870 --> 00:37:46,960
two years ago and i'm personally a bit

1167
00:37:50,710 --> 00:37:48,880
disappointed that

1168
00:37:52,150 --> 00:37:50,720
in terms of experimental progress you

1169
00:37:53,349 --> 00:37:52,160
seem to be in about the same place you

1170
00:37:55,829 --> 00:37:53,359
were then

1171
00:37:56,470 --> 00:37:55,839
um actually that's not the case um uh uh

1172
00:37:58,230 --> 00:37:56,480
york we

1173
00:37:59,589 --> 00:37:58,240
have we have built some silicon devices

1174
00:38:01,430 --> 00:37:59,599
in the last two years

1175
00:38:03,430 --> 00:38:01,440
and um as they say in science it's all

1176
00:38:06,870 --> 00:38:03,440
about time and money

1177
00:38:09,589 --> 00:38:06,880
okay the

1178
00:38:10,710 --> 00:38:09,599
the question i had is that as those

1179
00:38:14,710 --> 00:38:10,720
those

1180
00:38:17,829 --> 00:38:14,720
thin strips of silicon are are

1181
00:38:20,390 --> 00:38:17,839
moved or stressed uh on a

1182
00:38:21,589 --> 00:38:20,400
cyclic basis you're going to get phil

1183
00:38:25,270 --> 00:38:21,599
you're going to get fatigued

1184
00:38:27,430 --> 00:38:25,280
setting in which is uh which is a

1185
00:38:28,790 --> 00:38:27,440
part of the second law you know it takes

1186
00:38:30,950 --> 00:38:28,800
energy to

1187
00:38:32,150 --> 00:38:30,960
do that but don't they don't they

1188
00:38:33,829 --> 00:38:32,160
finally fail

1189
00:38:35,910 --> 00:38:33,839
yeah and have you taken that into

1190
00:38:36,230 --> 00:38:35,920
account yes we have the there there are

1191
00:38:40,470 --> 00:38:36,240
three

1192
00:38:41,750 --> 00:38:40,480
these devices have have to satisfy first

1193
00:38:43,430 --> 00:38:41,760
of all you have to make a

1194
00:38:45,670 --> 00:38:43,440
electromechanical silicon device that

1195
00:38:46,310 --> 00:38:45,680
has um an equivalence basically between

1196
00:38:48,069 --> 00:38:46,320
the time

1197
00:38:49,190 --> 00:38:48,079
constant the electro the electric time

1198
00:38:50,790 --> 00:38:49,200
constant and the mechanical time

1199
00:38:53,109 --> 00:38:50,800
constant such that they coincide so you

1200
00:38:54,710 --> 00:38:53,119
get this electromechanical resonance

1201
00:38:56,470 --> 00:38:54,720
the second one is that the amount of

1202
00:38:59,109 --> 00:38:56,480
loss in the system in other words the

1203
00:39:02,230 --> 00:38:59,119
amount of damping in the system

1204
00:39:04,550 --> 00:39:02,240
from the springs has to be below that

1205
00:39:06,310 --> 00:39:04,560
the loss of the the mechanical losses

1206
00:39:09,190 --> 00:39:06,320
have to be less than the energy gain

1207
00:39:11,109 --> 00:39:09,200
during each cycle from from the motion

1208
00:39:12,630 --> 00:39:11,119
and that requires very high q high

1209
00:39:13,829 --> 00:39:12,640
quality factor springs

1210
00:39:15,829 --> 00:39:13,839
which is which is why we're using

1211
00:39:18,390 --> 00:39:15,839
silicon crystal it has you can make

1212
00:39:19,270 --> 00:39:18,400
um cues of an over 100 000 with with

1213
00:39:20,630 --> 00:39:19,280
silicon

1214
00:39:21,670 --> 00:39:20,640
and that is also important so we're

1215
00:39:22,310 --> 00:39:21,680
going to have to work in a cube regime

1216
00:39:24,790 --> 00:39:22,320
of around

1217
00:39:25,990 --> 00:39:24,800
um around a thousand or more so so

1218
00:39:27,270 --> 00:39:26,000
that's certainly the case we're working

1219
00:39:28,710 --> 00:39:27,280
in the linear regime or

1220
00:39:30,630 --> 00:39:28,720
where fatigue should not be a serious

1221
00:39:32,550 --> 00:39:30,640
factor and the third one has to do with

1222
00:39:33,990 --> 00:39:32,560
obstriction we have to have enough

1223
00:39:34,710 --> 00:39:34,000
pullback that it can overcome surface

1224
00:39:36,710 --> 00:39:34,720
diction we've

1225
00:39:37,910 --> 00:39:36,720
we have found regimes in which all three

1226
00:39:39,589 --> 00:39:37,920
of these can be can

1227
00:39:41,030 --> 00:39:39,599
can be satisfied mutually and so as far

1228
00:39:42,390 --> 00:39:41,040
as we know there is no

1229
00:39:46,630 --> 00:39:42,400
physical impediment to making one of

1230
00:39:52,150 --> 00:39:49,910
over here over here suppose

1231
00:39:54,390 --> 00:39:52,160
next year you violate the second law do

1232
00:39:55,270 --> 00:39:54,400
you have any idea how you would correct

1233
00:40:02,710 --> 00:39:55,280
it

1234
00:40:04,710 --> 00:40:02,720
um i think i did second the

1235
00:40:06,550 --> 00:40:04,720
entropy of the universe never decreases

1236
00:40:09,750 --> 00:40:06,560
except when it does

1237
00:40:13,030 --> 00:40:11,670
well the second i mean the whole point

1238
00:40:13,589 --> 00:40:13,040
is that the second law is an absolute

1239
00:40:15,750 --> 00:40:13,599
statement

1240
00:40:17,910 --> 00:40:15,760
it it says something that this is

1241
00:40:19,349 --> 00:40:17,920
impossible so what we're saying is that

1242
00:40:21,670 --> 00:40:19,359
in certain cases it isn't it's like

1243
00:40:23,510 --> 00:40:21,680
saying um pigs don't fly

1244
00:40:25,190 --> 00:40:23,520
pigs don't fly unless you load them on a

1245
00:40:27,190 --> 00:40:25,200
plane then they do

1246
00:40:29,270 --> 00:40:27,200
so it's it's a question of finding the

1247
00:40:31,990 --> 00:40:29,280
regimes in which it is applicable

1248
00:40:32,550 --> 00:40:32,000
um so the second law in its current

1249
00:40:34,069 --> 00:40:32,560
state

1250
00:40:35,589 --> 00:40:34,079
is absolutely true but if there are

1251
00:40:43,109 --> 00:40:35,599
exceptions to it then you have to throw

1252
00:40:46,150 --> 00:40:44,470
well i don't find that a good reason not

1253
00:40:48,230 --> 00:40:46,160
to pursue my research it's their problem

1254
00:40:50,470 --> 00:40:48,240
not mine

1255
00:40:51,910 --> 00:40:50,480
i mean i'm simply testing this law and i

1256
00:40:53,430 --> 00:40:51,920
and and there are enough theoretical

1257
00:40:55,190 --> 00:40:53,440
arguments now not just from me but from

1258
00:40:56,470 --> 00:40:55,200
dozens of other dozen other researchers

1259
00:40:57,750 --> 00:40:56,480
research groups indicate there are

1260
00:40:59,430 --> 00:40:57,760
probably problems with it

1261
00:41:01,589 --> 00:40:59,440
now think about it the second law was

1262
00:41:02,550 --> 00:41:01,599
discovered and was and was developed

1263
00:41:05,750 --> 00:41:02,560
around the idea

1264
00:41:06,390 --> 00:41:05,760
of steam engines 150 years ago and what

1265
00:41:07,990 --> 00:41:06,400
has happened

1266
00:41:09,589 --> 00:41:08,000
since then we have you know we have we

1267
00:41:12,150 --> 00:41:09,599
have we have pushed the boundaries

1268
00:41:12,950 --> 00:41:12,160
of of temperature from from nanokelvin

1269
00:41:14,309 --> 00:41:12,960
up to 100

1270
00:41:16,150 --> 00:41:14,319
up to a billion degrees in the

1271
00:41:17,910 --> 00:41:16,160
laboratory we have um

1272
00:41:19,670 --> 00:41:17,920
we have pushed the densities of

1273
00:41:20,950 --> 00:41:19,680
materials up by by implosion techniques

1274
00:41:22,470 --> 00:41:20,960
by a factor of 100

1275
00:41:23,430 --> 00:41:22,480
we have discovered quantum mechanics we

1276
00:41:25,190 --> 00:41:23,440
have disc we have discovered

1277
00:41:26,790 --> 00:41:25,200
superconductivity we've discovered

1278
00:41:28,470 --> 00:41:26,800
chaos theory special relativity general

1279
00:41:30,550 --> 00:41:28,480
relativity and

1280
00:41:32,230 --> 00:41:30,560
it and it is the only law that i'm aware

1281
00:41:35,349 --> 00:41:32,240
of that has not been updated

1282
00:41:37,030 --> 00:41:35,359
in 200 years and i s and my belief is

1283
00:41:38,630 --> 00:41:37,040
it probably needs to be updated and the

1284
00:41:40,230 --> 00:41:38,640
updating is basically to say it is no

1285
00:41:41,430 --> 00:41:40,240
longer absolute any more than the ideal

1286
00:41:44,309 --> 00:41:41,440
gas laws absolute

1287
00:41:45,829 --> 00:41:44,319
the ideal gas law is excellent a a very

1288
00:41:46,550 --> 00:41:45,839
good approximation but it is not

1289
00:41:47,910 --> 00:41:46,560
absolute

1290
00:41:50,069 --> 00:41:47,920
it's a good approximation i think the

1291
00:41:51,349 --> 00:41:50,079
second law i believe the second law will

1292
00:41:52,230 --> 00:41:51,359
ultimately turn out to be a very good

1293
00:41:54,870 --> 00:41:52,240
approximation

1294
00:41:56,150 --> 00:41:54,880
but not absolutely true two more brief

1295
00:41:59,349 --> 00:41:56,160
questions

1296
00:42:01,109 --> 00:41:59,359
um on the hammer anvil contact point yes

1297
00:42:03,430 --> 00:42:01,119
what keeps that from just forming yet

1298
00:42:04,470 --> 00:42:03,440
another diode or sort of like a p i n

1299
00:42:06,790 --> 00:42:04,480
diode with a little

1300
00:42:08,230 --> 00:42:06,800
vacuum layer yes it does but after the

1301
00:42:10,790 --> 00:42:08,240
first contact wouldn't there

1302
00:42:12,069 --> 00:42:10,800
okay no current no what happens is there

1303
00:42:13,670 --> 00:42:12,079
are two things happening

1304
00:42:15,670 --> 00:42:13,680
in fact you could slow this thing down

1305
00:42:16,230 --> 00:42:15,680
if you wished and actually stop it there

1306
00:42:18,230 --> 00:42:16,240
and form

1307
00:42:19,270 --> 00:42:18,240
a complete p and diode it takes certain

1308
00:42:21,349 --> 00:42:19,280
amount of time for it to form

1309
00:42:23,030 --> 00:42:21,359
okay it takes 100 nanoseconds or longer

1310
00:42:25,589 --> 00:42:23,040
if you have a resistive load on it

1311
00:42:27,109 --> 00:42:25,599
but when it when it touches and the and

1312
00:42:29,829 --> 00:42:27,119
the charges begin to diffuse the

1313
00:42:30,870 --> 00:42:29,839
electric field

1314
00:42:31,990 --> 00:42:30,880
because it's being because now the

1315
00:42:33,109 --> 00:42:32,000
electric field is extending over the

1316
00:42:34,790 --> 00:42:33,119
depletion region

1317
00:42:36,950 --> 00:42:34,800
but recall that electrostatic pressure

1318
00:42:38,390 --> 00:42:36,960
goes as epsilon not the permittivity of

1319
00:42:39,510 --> 00:42:38,400
free space divided by two times the

1320
00:42:41,589 --> 00:42:39,520
electric field squared it goes

1321
00:42:43,829 --> 00:42:41,599
quadratically as the electric field

1322
00:42:45,430 --> 00:42:43,839
so when the when the contact is made

1323
00:42:46,069 --> 00:42:45,440
even if you do get the formation of an

1324
00:42:47,829 --> 00:42:46,079
entire

1325
00:42:49,829 --> 00:42:47,839
p-n junction the electric field is

1326
00:42:51,430 --> 00:42:49,839
dropped by a factor of

1327
00:42:52,950 --> 00:42:51,440
10 therefore the pressure is dropped by

1328
00:42:57,670 --> 00:42:52,960
a factor of 100 and therefore the spring

1329
00:43:01,589 --> 00:43:00,069
you mentioned uh background fluctuations

1330
00:43:04,230 --> 00:43:01,599
briefly in one of your slides

1331
00:43:07,030 --> 00:43:04,240
yes within limits hasn't this already

1332
00:43:09,589 --> 00:43:07,040
been a violation of the second law